Sources

Part One

Chapter One: A Negro Asylum

Cartwright, Samuel A. “Report on the Diseases and Physical Peculiarities of the Negro Race.” New Orleans Medical and Surgical Journal (1851).

“Killing Insane Principal, Most Brutal in State’s History.” Baltimore Afro-American, June 22, 1923.

Murray, Pauli, 1910-1985 and Patricia, Bell-Scott. Song in a Weary Throat: Memoir of an American Pilgrimage New York: Liveright Publishing Corporation, a division of W.W. Norton & Company, 2018.

Odum, Howard. Social and Mental Traits of the Negro: Research into the Conditions of the Negro Race in Southern Towns, a Study in Race Traits, Tendencies and Prospects. New York: Columbia University, 1910.

Schulz, Kathryn. “The Many Lives of Pauli Murray.” New Yorker, April 10, 2017. https://www.newyorker.com/magazine/2017/04/17/the-many-lives-of-pauli-murray.

Stuckey, Zosha. “Race, Apology, and Public Memory at Maryland’s Hospital for the ‘Negro’ Insane.” Disability Studies Quarterly 37 (Winter 2017). https://dsq-sds.org /article/view/5392/4547.

Chapter Two: All the Superintendent’s Men

Anne Arundel County. “County History.” Anne Arundel County. https://www .aacounty.org/our-county/history/.

Author interview with Barbara Arthur, Thomas Arthur, Gertrude Belt, Marie Gough, Betty Hawkins, Joyce Phillip, and Thelma Lovelace. Crownsville, April 30, 2022. 

Biennial Report of the Lunacy Commission December 1, 1915 to November 30, 1917 to His Excellency the Governor of Maryland. Annapolis: Press of the Advertiser Republican, 1917.

Biennial Report of the Lunacy Commission December 1, 1917 to November 30, 1919 to His Excellency the Governor of Maryland. Baltimore: Fleet-McGinley Company, 1919.

Biennial Report of the Lunacy Commission December 1, 1919 to November 30, 1921 to His Excellency the Governor of Maryland. Baltimore: Press of Day Printing Co., 1921.

Crownsville State Hospital. History of The Crownsville State Hospital. Crownsville, MD, 1961. Paul Lurz personal collection.

Davis, King E. “Stribling’s criteria for a Black asylum.” Received by Antonia Hylton, July 3, 2023.

Lurz, Paul. Letter to the Legislative Black Caucus, Maryland State Legislature, Sep- tember 18, 2013.

Morgenstern, Doris. “History of the Crownsville State Hospital.” Crownsville Hospital, 1960. Paul Lurz personal collection.

Proposed Outline for Ten Year (1965–74) Development Program, 1 July 1963, Reports, T2811-1. Crownsville Hospital Center, Department of Health and Mental Hygiene (General File). Maryland State Archives.

Schoeberlein, Robert William. “Mental Illness in Maryland: Public Perception, Dis- course, and Treatment, from the Colonial Period to 1964.” Digital Repository at the University of Maryland, May 1, 2006. https://drum.lib.umd.edu/handle/1903/3487.

The Fifteenth Report of the Lunacy Commission to His Excellency the Governor of Mary- land. Baltimore: The Sun Book and Job Printing Office, 1900. http://msa.maryland.gov/megafile/msa/speccol/sc5300/sc5339/000113/013000/013150 /unrestricted/20101040e.pdf.

The Twentieth Report of the Lunacy Commission to His Excellency the Governor of Mary- land. Baltimore: Press of James Young, 1905. http://msa.maryland.gov/megafile/msa/speccol/sc5300/sc5339/000113/013000/013150/unrestricted/20101045e.pdf.

The Twenty-Sixth Report of the Lunacy Commission to His Excellency the Governor of Maryland. Baltimore: 1911. https://msa.maryland.gov/megafile/msa/speccol/sc5300/sc5339/000113/013000/013150/unrestricted/20101050e.pdf.

The Twenty-Seventh Report of the Lunacy Commission to His Excellency the Governor of Maryland. Baltimore: 1912. https://msa.maryland.gov/megafile/msa/speccol/sc5300/sc5339/000113/013000/013150/unrestricted/20101051e.pdf.

The Twenty-Eighth Report of the Lunacy Commission to His Excellency the Governor of Maryland. Baltimore: 1913. https://msa.maryland.gov/megafile/msa/speccol/sc5300/sc5339/000113/013000/013150/unrestricted/20101052e.pdf.

Wood, A. D. Dr. Francis T. Stribling and Moral Medicine: Curing the Insane at Virginia’s Western State Hospital, 1836–1874. Gallileo Press, 2004

Chapter Three: The Sea, the Farm, and the Forest

Addie Belle Admission Note, Crownsville State Hospital, March 28, 1938. Paul Lurz personal collection.

Admissions Report, Crownsville State Hospital, March 28, 1938. Paul Lurz personal collection.

Author interview with Carl Snowden. Annapolis, June 25, 2022.

Author interview with Janice Hayes-Williams. Annapolis, April 12, 2022.

Author interview with Paul Lurz. Annapolis, February 4, 2015, and February 19, 2023.

Commissioner of Mental Hygiene. Letter to Judge Thomas Waxter regarding a young Black girl in court, October 3, 1931. Paul Lurz personal collection.

“Crownsville Space Will Be Doubled: 59.2 Square Feet per Patient to Be Added Under Lane Program.” Baltimore Sun, February 21, 1949.

Davenport, Christian. “The Roots of Reconciliation: 400 March in Annapolis to Help Heal Slavery’s Wounds.” Washington Post, September 30, 2004.

Ellis, Clifton, and Rebecca Ginsburg. Slavery in the City: Architecture and Landscapes of Urban Slavery in North America. Charlottesville: University of Virginia Press, 2017. Fitzgerald, Alice. 

“Report of Visit of Inspection to Crownsville State Hospital.” Department Of Health and Mental Hygiene Board of Nursing (General File). 1905–1971, T1572, School Reports. Maryland State Archives.

Healy, Joseph P. Undated letter from chairman of Governor’s Interracial Commission to Mr. Walter Kirman. Paul Lurz personal collection.

Interim Report: The Present Status of the Criminal Insane of Maryland, 1952. S215, box 34, Department of Mental Hygiene Board of Review (General File) 1951–1961. Mary-

land State Archives.

Johnston, James H. From Slave Ship to Harvard: Yarrow Mamout and the History of an African American Family. New York: Fordham University Press, 2012.

Lurz, Paul. Letter to the Legislative Black Caucus, Maryland State Legislature, September 18, 2013. Paul Lurz personal collection.

“Meeting Minutes, March 18, 1954.” S215, box 34, Department of Mental Hygiene

Board of Review (General File) 1951–1961. Maryland State Archives; Crownsville State 

Hospital Comparative Statistics 1949–1961. 1961, box 35, Mental Hygiene Board of Review (General File) 1951–1961. Maryland State Archives.

Millward, Jessica. Finding Charity’s Folk: Enslaved and Free Black Women in Maryland. Athens: University of Georgia Press, 2015.

“Patients Help to Build: Negroes at Crownsville Benefited by Outdoor Work. Receiving Ward Open Soon.” Baltimore Sun, December 27, 1912.

Proposed Outline for Ten Year (1965–74) Development Program, 1 July 1963, Reports, T2811-1. Crownsville Hospital Center, Department of Health and Mental Hygiene (General File). Maryland State Archives.

Region III, Philadelphia Department of Health, Education, and Welfare and other Fed- eral Agencies. “Deinstitutionalization of the Mentally Disabled in Maryland.” United States General Accounting Office, Washington Regional Office, July 7, 1976. http:// www.gao.gov/assets/200/191192.pdf.

Report on the Mental Hospitals of the State of Maryland, 1949, Reports, T2811-1. Crowns- ville Hospital Center, Department of Health and Mental Hygiene (General File). Maryland State Archives.

Schablitsky, Julie M. “Belvoir’s Legacy.” Archaeology 69 (November/December 2016): 55–63.

Stuckey, Zosha. “Race, Apology, and Public Memory at Maryland’s Hospital for the ‘Negro’ Insane.” Disability Studies Quarterly 37 (Winter 2017). https://dsq-sds.org /article/view/5392/4547.

The Fifteenth Report of the Lunacy Commission to His Excellency the Governor of Mary- land. Baltimore: The Sun Book and Job Printing Office, 1900. http://msa .maryland.gov/megafile/msa/speccol/sc5300/sc5339/000113/013000/013150 /unrestricted/20101040e.pdf.

The Twentieth Report of the Lunacy Commission to His Excellency the Governor of Maryland. Baltimore: The Sun Book and Job Printing Office, 1905. http://msa.maryland.gov/megafile/msa/speccol/sc5300/sc5339/000113/013000/013150

/unrestricted/20101045e.

The Twenty-Fifth Report of the Lunacy Commission to His Excellency the Governor of Mary- land. Baltimore: The Sun Book and Job Printing Office, 1910.

The Twenty-Seventh Report of the Lunacy Commission to His Excellency the Governor of Maryland. Baltimore: 1912. https://msa.maryland.gov/megafile/msa/speccol/sc5300 /sc5339/000113/013000/013150/unrestricted/20101051e.pdf.

Weill Cornell Medical College. “The Rise and Decline of Psychiatric Hydrotherapy.” Oskar Diethelm Library. http://www.cornellpsychiatry.org/history/osk_die_lib /hydrotherapy/default.htm.

Wennersten, John R. “John W. Crisfield and Civil War Politics on Maryland’s Eastern Shore, 1860–1864.” Maryland Historical Magazine 99 (Spring 2004): 5–15. https:// msa.maryland.gov/megafile/msa/speccol/sc5800/sc5881/000001/000000/000394 /pdf/msa_sc_5881_1_394.pdf.

Whitman, T. Stephen. The Price of Freedom: Slavery and Manumission in Baltimore and Early National Maryland. Lexington: University Press of Kentucky, 1997.

Chapter Four: What Could Drive a Black Person Mad?

Anne Arundel County. “County History.” Anne Arundel County. https://www .aacounty.org/our-county/history/.

“Armwood Quit School in 5th Grade, Says Pal.” Baltimore Afro-American, October 21, 1933.

“Badges Discussed for Crownsville: Steps Taken to Identify ‘Safe’ Mental Patients.” Baltimore Sun, August 6, 1948.

Baltimore City. Grand Jury Report, May Term. “The House of Reformation for Colored Boys,” 1927. Maryland State Archives. BRG68-1-5-3-2.

“Blame Ritchie in Lynching.” Washington Times, December 5, 1931.

“Commander of State Police Gives Own Account of Attack on Jail.” Salisbury Times, October 19, 1933.

“Comment of Eastern Shore Newspapers on Lynching.” Baltimore Sun, December 5, 1931.

“Crownsville Issue Left to Hospital Head: Escape Problem One of Administration, Mental Hygiene Board Says.” Baltimore Sun, August 13, 1948.

Equal Justice Initiative. “On This Day—Oct 18, 1933: White Mob of 2,000 People Lynches George Armwood in Maryland.” https://calendar.eji.org/racial-injustice/oct/18.

“George Armwood (b. 1911—d. 1933).” Archives of Maryland Biographical Series, MSA SC 3520-13750. https://msa.maryland.gov/megafile/msa/speccol/sc3500/sc3520/013750/html.

Ifill, Sherrilyn A. On the Court-House Lawn: Confronting the Legacy of Lynching in the Twenty-First Century. Boston: Beacon Press, 2007.

Interim Report: The Present Status of the Criminal Insane of Maryland, 1952. S215, box 34, Department of Mental Hygiene Board of Review (General File) 1951–1961. Maryland State Archives.

Leffler, Merrill. Review of Strange Fruit: Racism and Community Life in the Chesapeake—1850 to the Present, by John R. Wennersten. Washington Independent Review of Books, December 30, 2021. https://www.washingtonindependentreviewofbooks.com/index.php/bookreview/strange-fruit-racism-and-community-life-in-the -chesapeake-1850-to-the-present.

Lynchers in Salisbury Had Right-of-Way.” Baltimore Afro-American, December 12, 1931.

“Lynching Breaks 20-Year Record.” Baltimore Sun, December 5, 1931.

“Matthew Williams (b. 1908—d. 1931).” Archives of Maryland Biographical Series, MSA SC 3520-13749.

“Mob Members Knew Prey Was Feeble-Minded.” Baltimore Afro-American, October 21, 1933.

“Mob Took Negro from Her Custody.” Baltimore Sun, December 5, 1931.

“Negro Slays D. J. Elliott and Self.” Salisbury Times, December 4, 1931.

Norton, Howard M. “Maryland’s Shame: The Worst Story Ever Told in the Sunpapers.”

Baltimore Sun, January 11, 1949.

O’Donnell, Louis J. “Guard Against Racial Outbreak at Scene of Lynching.” Baltimore

Sun, December 6, 1931.

“Officers and Posses Hunt Somerset Woods for Negro Assailant of Aged Woman.”

Salisbury Times, October 16, 1933.

“Police Squad Escorts Negro Back to Shore.” Baltimore Sun, October 18, 1933.

“Report of Impending Mob Action Heard by Ritchie in Annapolis.” Baltimore Sun, October 19, 1933.

“Ritchie Orders Mob Members’ Arrest; Lee Trial Deferred.” Baltimore Sun, December

6, 1931.

“Salisbury Killer Is Hanged from Tree at Courthouse.” Baltimore Sun, December 5, 1931. “Shore Mob Lynches Negro.” Baltimore Sun, October 19, 1933.

“Somerset Jury Will Be Recalled for Trial of Man on Assault Charge.” Salisbury Times, October 17, 1933.

Wennersten, John R. “John W. Crisfield and Civil War Politics on Maryland’s Eastern Shore, 1860–1864.” Maryland Historical Magazine 99 (Spring 2004): 5–15. https://msa.maryland.gov/megafile/msa/speccol/sc5800/sc5881/000001/000000/000394 /pdf/msa_sc_5881_1_394.pdf.

Wennersten, John R. Strange Fruit: Racism and Community Life in the Chesapeake—1850 to the Present. Washington, D.C.: New Academia Publishing, 2020.

Chapter Five: The Architecture of Injustice

Author interview with Essie Sutton. Phone, April 25, 2021.

Author interview with Faye Belt. Crownsville, May 1, 2022.

Author interview with Faye Belt and Gertrude Belt. Annapolis, April 30, 2022.

Author interview with Janice Hayes-Williams. Annapolis, April 12, 2022.

Author interview with Paul Lurz. Annapolis, February 4, 2015.

Barton, Walter E. The History and Influence of the American Psychiatric Association. Wash-

ington, D.C.: American Psychiatric Press, 1987.

Bourdieu, Pierre. “The Forms of Capital.” In Handbook of Theory and Research for the Sociology of Education, edited by John G. Richardson, 241–258. New York: Green- wood Press, 1986.

Crownsville State Hospital Comparative Statistics 1949–1961. 1961, S215, box 35, Depart- ment of Mental Hygiene Board of Review (General File) 1951–1961. Maryland State Archives.

“Dr. Camper Would Prove His Charges: Replies to Crownsville Official on Allegations About Patients.” Baltimore Sun, January 24, 1949.

Hospital Report, Industrial Shop Report, 1 July 1950, Reports, T2811-1. Crownsville Hos- pital Center, Department of Health and Mental Hygiene (General File). Maryland State Archives.

“Indifference Is Blamed: Public Attitude on Mental Hospitals Is Cited.” Baltimore Sun, January 22, 1949.

“Industrial Therapy in Mental Hospitals.” British Medical Journal (January 1969): 202–203. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1982065/?page=1.

Jackson, Lynette A. Surfacing Up: Psychiatry and Social Order in Colonial Zimbabwe, 1908–1968. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 2005.

Johnson, Walter. Soul by Soul: Life Inside the Antebellum Slave Market. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1999.

Jones, Kenneth. Letter to Governor Theodore McKeldin, June 23, 1952. S215, box 34, Department of Mental Hygiene Board of Review (General File) 1951–1961. Mary- land State Archives.

Keller, Richard. Colonial Madness: Psychiatry in French North Africa. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2008.

“Killing Insane Principal, Most Brutal in State’s History.” Baltimore Afro-American, June 22, 1923.

Letter to Chairmen, Senate Finance Committee, House Ways and Means Commit- tee from John S. Shriver, 25 February 1959, S215, box 34, Department of Mental Hygiene Board of Review, General File 1951–1961, Maryland State Archives.

Long, Gretchen. Doctoring Freedom: The Politics of African American Medical Care in Slav- ery and Emancipation. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2012.

Lurz, Paul. Email message to author. February 21, 2015.

Lurz, Paul. Letter to the Legislative Black Caucus, Maryland State Legislature, September 18, 2013. Paul Lurz personal collection.

McCulloch, Jock. Colonial Psychiatry and the African Mind. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1995.

Minutes of Meeting, March 18, 1954. S215, box 34, Department of Mental Hygiene

Board of Review (General File) 1951–1961. Maryland State Archives.

Morgan, Jennifer L. Laboring Women: Reproduction and Gender in New World Slavery.

Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2004.

Patient Medical Records, 1911–2000. Boxes 13–14, T3409. Crownsville Hospital Center,

Department of Health and Mental Hygiene (Patient Master Index). Maryland State

Archives.

“Patients Help to Build: Negroes at Crownsville Benefited by Outdoor Work. Receiving

Ward Open Soon.” Baltimore Sun, December 27, 1912.

Report on the Mental Hospitals of the State of Maryland, 1949, Reports, T2811-1. Crowns-

ville Hospital Center, Department of Health and Mental Hygiene (General File). Maryland State Archives.

Sadowsky, Jonathan. Imperial Bedlam: Institutions of Madness in Colonial Southwest Nige- ria. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1999.

Shriver, John S. Letter to the chairmen, Senate Finance Committee, House Ways and Means Committee, February 25, 1959. S215, box 34, Department of Mental Hygiene Board of Review (General File) 1951–1961. Maryland State Archives.

Stuckey, Zosha. “Race, Apology, and Public Memory at Maryland’s Hospital for the ‘Negro’ Insane.” Disability Studies Quarterly 37 (Winter 2017).

Swartz, Sally. “Can the Clinical Subject Speak?: Some Thoughts on Subaltern Psychol- ogy.” Theory & Psychology 15 (2005): 505–525.

Ten Year Plan and History of CHC, 1958, Reports, T2811-1. Crownsville Hospital Center, Department of Health and Mental Hygiene (General File). Maryland State Archives.

Part Two

Chapter Six: Cousin Maynard

Author interview with Betty Williams. Phone, January 4, 2022.

Author interview with Kendal Foster. Phone, April 20, 2022.

“Gun-Wielding Man Shot Down by Officer.” Mobile Register (Mobile, Alabama), Octo-

ber 28, 1976.

“Shooting Victim Said Despondent Before Incident.” Mobile Register (Mobile, Ala-

bama), October 29, 1976.

Chapter Seven: Black Men Are Escaping

“Badges Discussed for Crownsville: Steps Taken to Identify ‘Safe’ Mental Patients,” Baltimore Sun, August 6, 1948.

“Bill To Commit Deranged Filed.” Baltimore Sun, January 29, 1969.

Conversation between Paul Lurz, Richard Hendler, and Uria Yoder, Crownsville Hospital Campus. Transcript. December 2000.

“Crownsville Insane ‘Rule,’ Boehm Says: Anne Arundel Commissioner Charges ‘White Glove’ Treatment.” Baltimore Sun, March 2, 1955.

“Crownsville Issue Left to Hospital Head: Escape Problem One of Administration,

Mental Hygiene Board Says.” Baltimore Sun, August 13, 1948.

“Crownsville Residents to Ask McKeldin to Move Criminals.” Baltimore Sun, Septem-

ber 19, 1951.

“Crownsville Riot.” Baltimore Afro-American, February 14, 1953.

Gordon, Kalani. “From the Archives: Crownsville State Hospital.” The Darkroom: Exploring Visual Journalism from the Baltimore Sun. January 15, 2015. https://darkroom.baltimoresun.com/2015/01/crownsville-state-hospital/#1.

“Hodge Taken from a Cell to Hospital: Ex-Illinois Auditor Is Shaken After Pleading

Guilty to Fraud.” Baltimore Sun, August 14, 1956.

Palmer, Brian, Sam Weber, and Connie Kargbo. “Maryland Reckons with a Violent,

Racist Past.” PBS, June 19, 2021. https://www.pbs.org/newshour/show/maryland

-reckons-with-a-violent-racist-past.

“Plan to Put Prison Camp at Crownsville Questioned.” Baltimore Sun, June 21, 1961. 

“Riot at Asylum: Used Gas.” Brisbane (Australia) Courier-Mail, February 9, 1953.

“Third Uprising at Crownsville Erupts Thursday.” Baltimore Afro-American, February 26, 1955.

Wacquant, Loïc. “From Slavery to Mass Incarceration: Rethinking the ‘Race Question’ in the US.” New Left Review 13 (2002): 41–60.

Wallace, Weldon. “Crownsville Shows Gains, But It Still Has Far to Go.” Baltimore Sun, June 1, 1953.

Yoder, Uria. Letters to Antonia Hylton. “Crownsville Hospital,” June 2023.

Chapter Eight: A Burning House

Author interview with Doris Morgenstern Wachsler. Virtual, January 10, 2021.

Author interview with Dorothea McCullers and Gertrude Belt. Crownsville, February

19, 2023.

Author interview with Dr. Jim Ballard. Crownsville, February 19, 2023.

Author interview with Faye Belt and Gertrude Belt. Annapolis, April 30, 2022.

Author interview with Milton Kent. Virtual, January 13, 2022.

Author interview with Paul Lurz. Annapolis, June 26, 2022.

Author interview with Thomas and Barbara Arthur. Virtual, April 20, 2022. 

Crownsville State Hospital Comparative Statistics 1949–1961. 1961, S215, box 35, Department of Mental Hygiene Board of Review (General File) 1951–1961, Maryland State

Archives. 

Declarations of Intention for Citizenship, 1/19/1842–10/29/1959. National Archives at

Philadelphia. NAI Number 4713410. Record Group Title: Records of District Courts

of the United States, 1685–2009. Record Group Number: 21.

“Group Raps Integration of Mental Cases.” Washington Post, January 12, 1953.

Jackson, Vanessa. “Separate and Unequal: The Legacy of Racially Segregated Psychiatric Hospitals; A Cultural Competence Training Tool.” Unpublished monograph. Atlanta, Georgia, 2005. https://www.patdeegan.com/sites/default/files/files/separate _and_unequal.pdf.

Minutes of meeting, September 12, 1957. S215, box 34, Department of Mental Hygiene Board of Review (General File) 1951–1961. Maryland State Archives.

Minutes of meeting, October 20, 1960. S215, box 34, Department of Mental Hygiene Board of Review (General File) 1951–1961. Maryland State Archives.

Nuriddin, Ayah. “Psychiatric Jim Crow: Desegregation at the Crownsville State Hospi- tal, 1948–1970.” Journal of the History of Medicine and Allied Sciences 74 (January 2019): 85–106.

“Personally Speaking.” Hospital Topics 31 (1953): 51–56.

Richmond, Suzanne. “Social Justice Through Medical Ethics: Dr. Jacob Morgenstern’s

Legacy at Crownsville State Hospital.” Generations 2009–2010. Baltimore: Jewish

Museum of Maryland, 2010.

“Summer Camp, Retreats, Field Trips & Outdoor Learning in Maryland: Camp

Puh’tok.” https://www.camppuhtok.com.

Sunderland, Lowell E. “Crownsville, Desegregated in 1963, Still 70% Negro.” Baltimore

Sun, May 14, 1968.

Telephone Conversation between Dr. George Preston (Commissioner of Mental

Hygiene for the State of Maryland) and Elizabeth “Bettye” Murphy Phillips Moss, a reporter at the Baltimore Afro-American newspaper. September 13, 1943. Paul Lurz’s personal collection.

Thorazine advertisement. Mental Hospitals 7 (1956).

Terrell, David L., Aubrey M. Perry, and James M. Ballard II. “Vernon Wellington

Sparks, Sr. (1920–2002): Obituary.” American Psychologist 57 (October 2002): 789.

Tuerk, Isadore and Kurt Gorwitz. “Maryland’s Mental Hospitals Five Years After Desegregation.” Maryland Department of Mental Hygiene Statistics, May 10, 1968. Paul Lurz personal collection.

Wachsler, Doris Morgenstern. “My Father’s Crownsville.” Generations 2009–2010. Bal- timore: Jewish Museum of Maryland, 2010.

Wallace, Weldon. “Crownsville Shows Gains, But It Still Has Far to Go.” Baltimore Sun, June 1, 1953.

World War II Draft Cards (Fourth Registration) for the State of Maryland. Series M1939. National Archives at St. Louis. Record Group Title: Records of the Selective Service System. Record Group Number: 147.

Chapter Nine: A Bus Ride to Rosewood

Department of Mental Hygiene Commissioner Hospital Correspondence. January 20, 1955. Paul Lurz personal collection.

Farquhar, Roger. “House Delays Crownsville Transfer Ban.” Washington Post, January 28, 1953.

“Group Raps Integration of Mental Cases.” Washington Post, January 12, 1953.

Letter from Clifton T. Perkins to Mr. Blanchard Randall, Secretary of State, 20 January 1955, box 742, Department of Mental Hygiene Commissioner Hospital Correspon-

dence 1952–1956. Maryland State Archives.

Lurz, Paul J. “An Attempt At Racial Integration Of Maryland’s State Mental

Hospitals—1952–1963.” Self-Published, 2020. Accessed December 22, 2020. 

Meeting Minutes, 11 December 1952. Department of Mental Hygiene Board of Review.

Paul Lurz personal collection.

“Mental Patient Shift May Reopen Suit.” Washington Times-Herald, December 5,

1954.

Report of the Joint Senate and House Committee to Study the State Mental Hospitals of Mary- land. Annapolis: Joint Senate and House Committee to Study the State Mental Hos- pitals, 1949.

“State Beginning Shift from Crownsville.” Evening Sun, December 27, 1954.

“State Sends 15 Negroes to Rosewood.” Washington Post and Times Herald, December

28, 1954.

“Suit Delays Transfer at State School.” Washington Post, January 19, 1953.

Part Three

Chapter Ten: Love and Broken Promises

Author interview with Julia Caridad Iglesias Cardenas. Virtual, January 21, 2023. 

Author interview with Maria O’Brien. Virtual, January 21, 2023.

Chapter Eleven: Out of Sight, Out of Mind

Author interview with Betty Hawkins and Faye Belt. Faye Belt’s home, Annapolis, April 20, 2022.

Author interview with Betty Hawkins, Donald Williams, and Marie Gough. Gertrude Belt’s home, Annapolis, April 30, 2022.

Author interview with Faye Belt. Annapolis, February 15, 2023.

Author interview with Paul Lurz. Annapolis, February 19, 2023.

Author interview with Rodney Barnes. Virtual, December 16, 2021.

“Crowding of Youths at Crownsville Told.” Baltimore Afro-American, February 7, 1953. 

“Crownsville Space Will Be Doubled: 59.2 Square Feet per Patient to Be Added Under

Lane Program.” Baltimore Sun, February 21, 1949.

“Dr. Camper Would Prove His Charges: Replies to Crownsville Official on Allegations

About Patients.” Baltimore Sun, January 24, 1949.

 “Indifference Is Blamed: Public Attitude on Mental Hospitals Is Cited.” Baltimore Sun,

January 22, 1949.

Letter from Kenneth Jones to Governor Theodore McKeldin, 23 June 1952, S215, box

34, Department of Mental Hygiene Board of Review (General File) 1951–1961,

Maryland State Archives.

Letter from Paul Lurz to the Legislative Black Caucus, Maryland State Legislature.

September 18, 2013. Paul Lurz personal collection.

Letter from Ralph Meng to Regina Slaughter, 3 December 1956, S215, box 35, Miscel-

laneous File 1957, Department of Mental Hygiene Board of Review (General File)

1951–1961, Maryland State Archives.

Lurz, Paul. “Memories.” Received by Antonia Hylton, 2014.

“Maryland’s Mental Hospitals Five Years After Desegregation.” Maryland Department

of Mental Hygiene Statistics Newsletter (May 10, 1968).

Parker, Jeanne Bruen. “The Social Worker’s Role in the Adjustment of Foster Care

Patients at Crownsville State Hospital.” Master’s thesis, Atlanta University, 1955. 

Parsons, Anne E. “From Asylum to Prison: The Story of Lincoln, Illinois.” Journal of

Illinois History 15 (Winter 2011): 242–260.

Phillips, B.M. “If You Ask Me: Crownsville Suffers Again.” Baltimore Afro-American. May 11, 1957.

Report on the Mental Hospitals of the State of Maryland, 1949, Reports, T2811-1. Crowns-

ville Hospital Center, Department of Health and Mental Hygiene (General File). Maryland State Archives.

Smith, William H. “Probe Asked of Hospital ‘Gas’ Rumor.” Washington Post, May 20,

1951.

Wallace, Weldon. “Crownsville Shows Gains, But It Still Has Far to Go.” Baltimore Sun, June 1, 1953.

Chapter Twelve: Medical and Surgical

Author interview with Betty Hawkins and Faye Belt. Faye Belt’s home, Annapolis, April 20, 2022.

Author interview with Betty Hawkins, Donald Williams, and Marie Gough. Gertrude Belt’s home, Annapolis, April 30, 2022.

Dr. Benjamin Rush to James Rush. The Letters of Benjamin Rush. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1951.

Elsie Lacks. Certificate of Death, February 24, 1955. Maryland State Department of Health-Baltimore, copy in possession of author.

Letter from Paul Lurz to Antonia Hylton. 2014.

Letter from Paul Lurz to the Legislative Black Caucus, Maryland State Legislature.

September 18, 2013.

Maryland General Assembly. Report of the Joint Senate and House Committee to Study

the State Mental Institutions. State of Maryland. March 1949. Paul Lurz personal collection.

Minutes of meeting, February 17, 1953. S215, box 34, Department of Mental Hygiene Board of Review (General File) 1951–1961. Maryland State Archives.

Monthly Report from Crownsville. Prepared by Superintendent Charles S. Ward for Dr. Clifton T. Perkins, Commissioner for the Department of Mental Hygiene. August 5, 1957. Paul Lurz personal collection.

Nuriddin, Ayah. “Psychiatric Jim Crow: Desegregation at the Crownsville State Hospi- tal, 1948–1970.” Journal of the History of Medicine and Allied Sciences 74 (January 2019): 85–106.

Preston, George H. Report to Senator F. G. Stromberg. Baltimore, MD. February 7, 1949. Paul Lurz personal collection.

Skloot, Rebecca. The Immortal Life of Henrietta Lacks. New York: Crown, 2010.

Smith, William H. “Probe Asked of Hospital ‘Gas’ Rumor.” Washington Post, May 20,

1951.

Wachsler, Doris Morgenstern. “Crownsville State Hospital: A Look at Its Present and

Past 1910–1960.” Unpublished manuscript. 1956.

Wallace, Weldon. “Crownsville Shows Gains, But It Still Has Far to Go.” Baltimore

Sun, June 1, 1953.

Chapter Thirteen: Nurse Faye and Sonia King

Author interview with Dr. Brian Sims. Virtual, January 16, 2023.

Author interviews with Faye Belt. Annapolis, February 15, 2022; April 28 and 29, 2022;

May 15, 2023.

Author interview with Sonia King. Odenton, November 18, 2022. 

Author telephone interview with Paul Lurz. October 7, 2014.

Part Four

Chapter Fourteen: Screaming at the Sky

Author interview with Betty Williams. Phone, January 4, 2022.

Author interview with Keith Hylton. Virtual, July 11, 2022.

Author interview with Kendal Foster. Phone, April 20, 2022.

Caldwell, A. B., ed. History of the American Negro and His Institutions. Georgiaed.

Atlanta, GA: A. B. Caldwell Publishing, 1917.

Cook, Eugene. “The ugly truth about the NAACP,” an address by Attorney General

Eugene Cook of Georgia before the 55th annual convention of the Peace Officers

Association of Georgia held in Atlanta. Date unknown.

Henderson, Ray, director. Struggles in Steel: A Story of African-American Steelworkers,

1996. California Newsreel.

Yenser, Thomas, ed. Who’s Who in Colored America: A Biographical Dictionary of Notable

Living Persons of African Descent in America. 6th ed. Brooklyn, NY: Thomas Yenser, 1941.

Chapter Fifteen: The Curious Case of the Elkton Three

Bleiberg, Larry. “The US Highway That Helped Break Segregation.” BBC Travel, BBC, February 9, 2023. https://www.bbc.com/travel/article/20220306-the-us -highway-that-helped-break-segregation.

“Elkton 3 Sent to Crownsville: ‘OUTRAGED.’” Baltimore Afro-American, September 19, 1961. http://news.google.com/newspapers?nid=JkxM1axsR-IC&dat=19610919 &printsec=frontpage&hl=en.

“Elkton Three Hoped ‘to Say Something to Maryland by Long Fast in Jail.’” Baltimore Afro- American, September 30, 1961.

“Exclusive: What Psychiatrist Said About Elkton 3.” Baltimore Afro-American, Septem- ber 30, 1961. http://news.google.com/newspapers?nid=2211&dat=19610930&id=Kdc mAAAAIBAJ&sjid=xgIGAAAAIBAJ&pg=5996,3796354.

“Juanita Nelson: Full Interview.” Interviewer unknown. Archived by the Memorial Hall Museum, Deerfield, Massachusetts. http://americancenturies.mass.edu/centapp/oh /interview.do?shortName=nelson_interview.

Kennedy, Bridget. Pathologizing Bias: Racial Disparities in the Diagnosis of Schizophre- nia. Research paper, Brandeis University Writing Program, 2022. https://www .brandeis.edu/writing-program/write-now/2021-2022/kennedy-bridget/kennedy -bridget.pdf.

Metzl, Jonathan. The Protest Psychosis: How Schizophrenia Became a Black Disease. Boston: Beacon, 2010.

Olbert, Charles M., Arundati Nagendra, and Benjamin Buck. “Meta-analysis of Black vs. White Racial Disparity in Schizophrenia Diagnosis in the United States: Do Structured Assessments Attenuate Racial Disparities?” Journal of Abnormal Psychology 127 (November 2017): 104–115.

“One Way to Get in a Mental Hospital.” Baltimore Afro-American, September 30, 1961

Schwartz, Robert C., and David M. Blankenship. “Racial Disparities in Psychotic Dis- order Diagnosis: A Review of Empirical Literature.” World Journal of Psychiatry 4 (December 2014): 133–140. https://doi.org/10.5498/wjp.v4.i4.133.

Terry v. Ohio, 392 U.S. 1 (1968). https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/392/1/.

Wells, Rufus. “Elkton 3 Talk: ‘Rather Die than Cooperate.’” Baltimore Afro-American,

September 16, 1961.

Wells, Rufus. “Trio Won’t Enter Pleas at Hearing.” Baltimore Afro-American, Septem-

ber 9, 1961. http://news.google.com/newspapers?nid=JkxM1axsR-IC&dat=19610909

&printsec=frontpage&hl=en.

“Why We Go Crazy.” Baltimore Afro-American, January 25, 1947 

Wilson, Edmund. The Cold War and the Income Tax: A Protest. New York: Farrar, Straus,

1963.

Wolraich, Michael. Blowing Smoke: Why the Right Keeps Serving Up Whack-Job Fantasies

About the Plot to Euthanize Grandma, Outlaw Christmas, and Turn Junior into a Raging Homosexual. Cambridge, MA: Da Capo Press, 2010.

Chapter Sixteen: Sympathy for Me but Not Thee

“Agent Orange: A Toxic Legacy.” Know A Vet? https://www.knowavet.org/a-toxic -legacy-the-generational-effects-of-agent-orange/.

Author interview with Delores Hawkins. Gertrude Belt’s home, Annapolis, April 30, 2022.

Author interview with Faye Belt. Annapolis, May 1, 2022.

Author interview with Paul Lurz. Annapolis, February 19, 2023.

“Bill to Commit Deranged Filed.” Baltimore Sun, January 29, 1969.

Chow, Andrew R., and Josiah Bates. “As Da 5 Bloods Hits Netflix, Black Vietnam

Veterans Recall the Real Injustices They Faced.” Time, June 12, 2020. https://time

.com/5852476/da-5-bloods-black-vietnam-veterans/

“Court Confinements.” Baltimore Sun, September 21, 1969.

“Curtain Lowering on Curley’s Remarkable, Riotous Show.” Baltimore Sun, September

16, 1990.

Fendrich, James M. “The Returning Black Vietnam-Era Veteran.” Social Service Review

46 (1972): 60–75.

Geiselman A. W. “Slipshod Justice for Mental Cases.” Baltimore Sun, September 28,

1969.

Herridge, Catherine. “Black Vietnam Veteran’s Nearly 60-Year Wait for Medal

of Honor Is Over.” CBS News, February 14, 2023. https://www.cbsnews .com/news/black-vietnam-veterans-nearly-60-year-wait-for-medal-of-honor-is -over/.

Interim Report: The Present Status of the Criminal Insane of Maryland, 1952. S215, box 34, Department of Mental Hygiene Board of Review (General File) 1951–1961. Mary- land State Archives.

Metzl, Jonathan. The Protest Psychosis: How Schizophrenia Became a Black Disease. Boston: Beacon, 2010.

Ornstein, Charles. “The Agent Orange Widows Club.” ProPublica, December 28, 2016. https://www.propublica.org/article/the-agent-orange-widows-club.

Ornstein, Charles, Hannah Fresques, and Mike Hixenbaugh. “The Children of Agent Orange.” ProPublica, December 16, 2016. https://www.propublica.org/article /the-children-of-agent-orange.

Report on the Mental Hospitals of the State of Maryland, 1949, Reports, T2811-1. Crowns- ville Hospital Center, Department of Health and Mental Hygiene (General File). Maryland State Archives.

Smith, Stuart S. “Plan to Put Prison Camp at Crownsville Questioned.” Baltimore Sun, June 21, 1961.

Wolins, Martin, and Yochanan Wozner. “Deinstitutionalization and the Benevolent Asylum.” Social Service Review 51, no. 4 (1977): 604-625.

Part Five

Chapter Seventeen: In the Balance

Abell, Kevin. "Disruptive Youth Center Due in Mid June." The Evening Sun, March 6, 1978

Author interview with Doug Struck. Virtual, October 29, 2021.

Author interview with Rodney Barnes. Los Angeles, December 16, 2021.

Author interview with Thomas and Barbara Arthur. Virtual, April 20, 2022.

Ax, Robert, and Thomas Fagan. Corrections, Mental Health, and Social Policy: Interna-

tional Perspectives. Springfield, IL: Charles C. Thomas, 2007.

Engel, Jonathan. “Deinstitutionalization in Maryland: A State’s Response to Federal

Legislation, 1945–1975.” PhD dissertation, Yale University, 1994.

Gottschalk, Marie. “Cell Blocks & Red Ink: Mass Incarceration, the Great Recession

and Penal Reform.” Daedalus 139 (Summer 2010): 62–73.

Harcourt, Bernard E. “An Institutionalization Effect: The Impact of Mental Hospital- ization and Imprisonment on Homicide in the United States, 1934–2001.” Journal of Legal Studies 40 (January 2011): 39–83.

Harcourt, Bernard E. “From the Asylum to the Prison: Rethinking the Incarceration Revolution.” Texas Law Review 84 (2006): 1751–1786.

Harcourt, Bernard E. “Reducing Mass Incarceration: Lessons from the Deinstitution- alization of Mental Hospitals in the 1960s.” Ohio State Journal of Criminal Law 9 (2011): 53–85.

LaGuerre, Diane Phillips, Lisa Phillips, Gregory McKenzie Phillips, Orlando McKenzie Phillips, and Muhammed Lloyd McKenzie Phillips. Letter to Antonia Hylton. “Life of George McKenzie Phillips,” July 7, 2023.

“Mentally Ill Persons in Corrections.” National Institute of Corrections, United States Department of Justice. [n.d.] Accessed February 20, 2015. http://nicic.gov /mentalillness.

Parsons, Anne E. “From Asylum to Prison: The Story of Lincoln, Illinois.” Journal of Illinois History 15 (Winter 2011): 242–260.

Region III, Philadelphia Department of Health, Education, and Welfare and other Fed- eral Agencies. 

“Deinstitutionalization of the Mentally Disabled in Maryland.” United States General Accounting Office, Washington Regional Office, July 7, 1976. http:// www.gao.gov/assets/200/191192.pdf.

Roth, Alisa. “The Truth About Deinstitutionalization.” The Atlantic, May 25, 2021. https:// www.theatlantic.com/health/archive/2021/05/truth-about-deinstitutionalization /618986/.

Struck, Doug. “6-Day Diary of Nothing: Time Meaningless in Hospital Ward.” Evening Capital, October 8, 1975.

Struck, Doug. “Apathy of Hospital Staff Takes Its Toll on Patients.” Evening Capital, October 9, 1975.

Struck, Doug. “Crownsville Changing in Keeping with Trend.” Evening Capital, October 10, 1975.

Struck, Doug. “Crownsville’s Boss: Do Outside Jobs Hinder His Effectiveness?” Evening Capital, October 17, 1975.

Struck, Doug. “Crownsville’s History.” Evening Capital, October 11, 1975.

Struck, Doug. “‘Snake Pit’ Image Lingers.” Evening Capital, October 15, 1975.

Struck, Doug. “Underfunding Limits Staff: Experts Score Treatment.” Evening Capital,

October 13, 1975.

Struck, Doug. “What Is It Like Inside Crownsville?” Evening Capital, October 3, 1975. 

Thompson, Heather Ann. “Why Mass Incarceration Matters: Rethinking Crisis, Decline, and Transformation in Postwar American History.” Journal of American History 97 (December 2010): 703–734.

Ulle, Margaret B. Rep. Humane Practices Commission. Paul Lurz personal collection, n.d. 

Ziedenberg, Jason, and Eric Lotke. Tipping Point: Maryland’s Overuse of Incarceration and the Impact on Public Safety. Washington, D.C.: Justice Policy Institute, 2005.

Chapter Eighteen: Irredeemable or Incurable

“4 Crownsville Inmates Flee from Hospital: Escape Criminally Insane Ward; Doctor Calls Them ‘Dangerous.’” Baltimore Sun, September 18, 1951.

Apperson, Jay. “Curtain Lowering on Curley’s Remarkable, Riotous Show.” Baltimore Sun, September 16, 1990.

Author interview with Paul Lurz. Annapolis, February 4, 2015.

Author interviews with Dr. Brian Sims. Virtual, January 16 and January 19, 2023. “Baltimore City 

Public Schools History: From the Old Order to the New Order—

Reasons and Results, 1957–1997.” Baltimore City Public School System, https://web .archive.org/web/20040102085255/http://www.baltimorecityschools.org/About /History/From_the_oldorder1.asp.

“Bill to Commit Deranged Filed.” Baltimore Sun, January 29, 1969.

“Court Confinements.” Baltimore Sun, September 21, 1969.

“Crowding of Youths at Crownsville Told.” Baltimore Afro-American, February 7, 1953. 

Geiselman, A. W. “Slipshod Justice for Mental Cases.” Baltimore Sun, September 28, 1969. Harcourt, Bernard E. “An Institutionalization Effect: The Impact of Mental Hospital-

ization and Imprisonment on Homicide in the United States.” Journal of Legal Studies

40 (January 2011): 39–83.

Harcourt, Bernard E. “Reducing Mass Incarceration: Lessons from the Deinstitutionalization of Mental Hospitals in the 1960s.” Ohio State Journal of Criminal Law 9

(2011): 53–85.

Hirsch, Arthur. “Delegate, Physician Aris T. Allen Commits Suicide at 80.” Baltimore

Sun, December 29, 1991.

Interim Report: The Present Status of the Criminal Insane of Maryland, 1952. S215, box 34,

Department of Mental Hygiene Board of Review (General File) 1951–1961. Mary-

land State Archives.

Lurz, Paul. Email message to author, February 21, 2015.

Metzl, Jonathan. The Protest Psychosis: How Schizophrenia Became a Black Disease. Boston:

Beacon, 2010.

Parsons, Anne E. “From Asylum to Prison: The Story of Lincoln, Illinois.” Journal of

Illinois History 15 (Winter 2011): 242–260.

“Plan to Put Prison Camp at Crownsville Questioned.” Baltimore Sun, June 21, 1961. Report on the Mental Hospitals of the State of Maryland, 1949, Reports, T2811-1. Crowns-

ville Hospital Center, Department of Health and Mental Hygiene (General File).

Maryland State Archives.

Seiden, Matt. "If Mental Hospitals Close, Where Would Patients Go?” Baltimore Sun, February 4, 1983

Thompson, Heather Ann. “Why Mass Incarceration Matters: Rethinking Crisis,

Decline, and Transformation in Postwar American History.” Journal of American History 97 (December 2010): 703–734.

Wacquant, Loïc. “Class, Race & Hyperincarceration in Revanchist America.” Daedalus

139 (Summer 2010): 74–90.

Weill Cornell Medical College. “The Rise and Decline of Psychiatric Hydrotherapy.”

Oskar Diethelm Library. http://www.cornellpsychiatry.org/history/osk_die_lib

/hydrotherapy/default.htm.

Ziedenberg, Jason, and Eric Lotke. Tipping Point: Maryland’s Overuse of Incarceration

and the Impact on Public Safety. Washington, D.C.: Justice Policy Institute, 2005.

Chapter Nineteen: The Fire

Author interview with Gertrude and Faye Belt. Virtual, May 15, 2023.

Author interviews with Rev. Sonia King. Odenton, November 18, 2022, and May 12,

2023.

Chapter Twenty: Closing Crownsville

Author interview with Faye Belt. Annapolis, May 1, 2022.

Author interview with Joyce and Errol Phillip. Virtual, April 20, 2022.

Author interview with Steuart Pittman. Virtual, May 9, 2023.

Author interviews with Dr. Brian Sims. Virtual, January 13 and 19, 2023.

Author interviews with Janice Hayes-Williams. Anne Arundel County, April 29 and

30, 2022.

“Maryland Historical Trust NR-Eligibility Review Form.” November 2, 2000.

Private performance memo with data from 2003 and 2004. Maryland Department of

Health and Mental Hygiene, Services and Institutional Operations.

Knight, Molly. “Patients Losing ‘Comfortable’ Place.” Baltimore Sun, May 9, 2004. 

“Say My Name.” Ceremony held in grounds of Crownsville Hospital, Crownsville,

Maryland. April 30, 2022.

Epilogue: But for the Grace of God

Author interview with Dr. Brian Sims. Virtual, January 13, 2023.

Author interview with Dr. Tami Benton. Virtual, December 9, 2022.

Author interview with Faye Belt. Phone, May 15, 2023.

Author interview with Janice Hayes-Williams. Virtual, May 16, 2023.

Author interview with Pat Deegan. Virtual, January 16, 2023.

Cramer, Maria, and Chelsia Rose Marcius. “Man Dies on Subway After Another

Rider Places Him in Chokehold.” New York Times, May 2, 2023. https://www

.nytimes.com/2023/05/02/nyregion/subway-chokehold-death.html.

McCarthy, Craig, Larry Celona, and Jorge Fitz-Gibbon. “Shocking Video Shows NYC Subway Passenger Putting Unhinged Man in Deadly Chokehold.” New York Post, May 2, 2023. https://nypost.com/2023/05/02/shocking-video-shows-vagrant

-being-choked-to-death-on-nyc-subway/.

Schiele, Jerome H., ed. Social Welfare Policy: Regulation and Resistance Among People of

Color. Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE Publications, Inc., 2011. Online at Sage Knowl-

edge. https://doi.org/10.4135/9781452275185.

Swartz, Marvin S., Jeffrey W. Swanson, Henry J. Steadman, Pamela Clark Robbins,

and John Monahan. New York State Assisted Outpatient Treatment Program Evaluation. Durham, NC: Duke University School of Medicine, 2009.